Crime and the Clink Prison

Introduction

The study of crime and the prison system in England through time necessarily requires a historical approach. Much more than simply recording facts, a historical study reveals how criminals, prison, and punishment fit into society. The fields of history and cultural studies have not always had a positive relationship with one another. Some historians were wary of focusing so much on a certain place and studying it as a text. This sort of tension led to a split between culturalists and structuralists. Structuralists mostly focused on analyzing a main text to learn about a culture whereas culturalists placed more emphasis in human action as a powerful force which could possibly change the course of history. Many historians fell into the culturalist camp, including the influential E. P. Thompson. Thompson has contributed to the field of social history. His main achievement has been to draw attention to the working class and the culture of common people. This view changed the study of history by moving scholarly focus away from the elite minority and toward the common majority. The cultural studies scholar Michel Foucault also contributed to cultural studies and history by studying power structures. Though Foucault was interested in studying the French prison system, his work has also impacted British cultural studies. The term “politics” when used in a cultural studies context refers to the way in which power is distributed in a society. It necessarily involves a consideration of class in the power structure and examines how the common class often becomes marginalized by the wealthy few. Focusing on these aspects of cultural studies regarding crime in England reveals how crime impacted common people and how power dynamics influenced the development of the prison system and punishment.

History

Punishment in England has an interesting history. Just after Roman times, fines were the normal method of punishment and executions were rare. More women were executed than men because men were needed for defense while women were seen as unnecessary. After the year 1000, executions were still few and far between but brutal punishments such as loss of the eyes or mutilation were often inflicted. The 13th century saw criminals being outlawed. It also marks the first use of the hanging, drawing, and quartering method in England for those guilty of treason. The late 1200s probably marks the beginning of the use of the stocks and pillory for less serious offenses. During the Tudor period, punishment became more gruesome. Surgeons were allowed to keep the bodies of executed criminals for research purposes. Religious crimes were more seriously persecuted during the Tudor era and many heretics were burnt at the stake. During the 18th century, criminals were often subjected to hard labor so that they would be deterred from committing a crime in the future. The crime rate was escalating, and no organized police force existed to prevent it. The “Bloody Code” of the 18th century added over 150 crimes to the list of capital offenses, but in reality the Code was often applied loosely to prevent so many executions from taking place. The Transportation Act was passed in 1718 and allowed for criminals to be transported to the Americas and later Australia. Other convicts were forced to work on prison hulks on the Thames in appalling conditions. The prison and punishment system faced criticisms during the 18th century which eventually led to improved prison conditions and an organized police force. In 1965, capital punishment was abolished in the United Kingdom as it still is today.

The beginning of the Clink Prison goes all the way back into Saxon times when a Synod required a place to keep misbehaving monks and friars. Specific punishments were already being dictated as early as 1076. The Clink was situated in Southwark and operated by the Bishop of Winchester. It became one of the earliest women’s prisons and some of the first inmates of the Clink were prostitutes. After the First Crusade, torture was inflicted on inmates of the Clink and various devices were used for these purposes. Conditions in the Clink remained horrendous. Prisoners had to beg through gratings to try to get food from passersby. The Clink was very dirty as well, and in 1378-79 filth was left in the courtyard for a period of at least 31 weeks. The dungeon was a particularly brutal place, as prisoners kept here were usually physically harmed and sometimes even left to die. Beginning in 1352, the Clink could now hold debtors until their debt was paid off. Punishments became even more brutal in the Tudor days. The Reformation beginning in the 1500s initiated a long lasting religious conflict, and the Clink began housing religious prisoners. During the 17th century prisoners were commonly sent to the colonies rather than prison. The Clink decayed into the 1700s and was eventually burnt down during the Gordon Riots of 1780.

Prisons

Four major purposes can be identified for using prisons. Prison is designed to punish people who have done something wrong. It also acts as a deterrent to keep others from committing crime. Ideally, prisons can also be places of reform where prisoners change their ways and emerge as valuable members of society. Finally, prisons keep dangerous criminals off the street and the public safe. The prison system itself reveals the values of the society operating the prison. Certain groups are usually represented in prison more than other groups. These dynamics show which groups have been marginalized by the social elite. Prisons reveal which people society wishes to punish and how severe society wishes those punishments to be. To a large extent, prisons are symbolic reminders of the rules which all citizens must follow. Early prisons were often constructed in the middle of towns so that all the people could see them. Prisons keep people aware of what actions are punishable and what sorts of punishment are distributed.

Prisons of today are very different from older prisons like the Clink. Prior to the 1600s, prison was not seen as a form of punishment. Rather, prison was a place to hold people in debt or others waiting to be tried or executed. If a prisoner had money he or she could pay jailers in exchange for more a more comfortable imprisonment which might involve extended family visits or lighter shackles. Early prisons sometimes were run by individuals to make a profit. The Clink was run for a long time by the Bishop of Winchester for his own gain. The prisoners were watched by any available public servant, typically from the lower class. Other times, the constable kept watch over the prisoners while his wife provided the prisoners with food (although usually only for a fee). The idea of exile as a form of punishment evolved from the removal of prisoners to the colonies and led to prisons becoming a form of punishment, not just a place to hold those waiting to be punished. The modern prison as we know it emerged for two reasons. Certain influential people became troubled by the awful conditions inside prisons and felt that prison life needed to be improved. In addition, more upstanding people began to work in jails. Eventually, the Prison Act of 1877 improved prison conditions in England and organized the prison system as a whole.

The Clink, however, was long gone when the Prison Act was passed and only knew the horrible conditions associated with the early English prisons. Both men and women were kept in the Clink. Many of the women were prostitutes as prostitution was common in the area around the Clink. Most of the people imprisoned in the Clink were poor or common people, although some religious prisoners were held at the Clink once the Reformation ignited religious conflict. Common thieves, pimps, ruffians, debtors, actors, political prisoners, and even fiddlers were also held at the Clink. Class relations played a role within this prison, as money could often buy prisoners better conditions. Upon payments, jailers would frequently give prisoners lighter shackles or even remove shackles altogether. Prisoners with money could buy adequate food while the destitute lived with a fear of starving and often without enough clothing. One jailer was so corrupt that a priest, instead of being punished for his beliefs, was actually allowed to say Mass in the Clink. The elite classes would have dominated English government and determined which people got arrested and what punishments should be inflicted for various crimes. Unpaid debts or thievery were not accepted in this society. There was a concern for morality as prostitution was one of the most punished crimes in the Clink. Religious dissidence became intolerable during the Tudor period as Protestants and Catholics took turns facing persecution. Any other radical opinions having the potential to cause a collapse in the monarchy were punished as well. Fiddlers often faced imprisonment for this very reason, as authorities worried that their satirical tunes might provoke unacceptable opinions.

Punishment

Punishment was a major part of the prison experience for many inmates. The conditions in prison alone were often a form of punishment- in at least one instance in the Clink a prisoner was so poor and hungry that he captured rats, let them fatten up, and ate them to stay alive. Several torture devices were on display at the Clink Prison Museum. The Whipping Bench was a place for prisoners to be whipped, as the name suggests. When sent to the Torture Chair, prisoners had their arms and legs strapped to the chair and were often tortured with tongue pullers or chisels for limbs. The stocks were used to punish minor offenses, such as drunkenness and dishonest trading. The pillory was also used for minor offenses, although if its occupant was very unpopular they ran the risk of having objects thrown at them which might prove fatal. More painful punishments were inflicted with the Boot which crushed the foot. The Collar was worn around the neck and lined with spikes. These spikes usually caused pain as well as sleep deprivation.

Certain punishments were primarily used on female prisoners. An ordeal by fire required a woman to walk on hot ploughshares. If no damage was caused, then the woman was deemed innocent. Obviously, damage would have always been caused by the hot ploughshares. Women had a virtually impossible task in trying to prove their innocence because they lacked social prominence and lived in a society dominated by men. Once a woman was found guilty, she was usually given a different sentence than a man would face. She would be “gently mutilated” which could involve branding her cheek, forehead, or breast with a hot iron, having her nose split open or hands chopped off. In the most extreme cases, a woman had two ropes tied to her, one tied to each side of her body. Horses would then pull on each rope so that the woman’s body would be torn apart. Henry VIII legalized boiling to death as a means of execution. Though the first victim of this new brutal execution style was a man, it was usually used on women who had killed their husbands or committed other major offenses. Women lacked any representation and most rights, and were punished in such a way that reveals their inferior social status.

For serious felonies, criminals were sentenced to death by execution. Execution was usually a public affair which crowds gathered to watch. Hanging was the most common form of execution in England. For cases of treason, offenders were hanged, drawn, and quartered. This meant that they would be hung by the neck until almost dead, cut down at which time several of their organs would be removed and they would be disemboweled, and finally their body would be cut into four parts. These parts were usually displayed at different locations throughout England to deter others from committing treasonous acts. The heads of traitors were usually displayed as well and the most noteworthy traitors had their heads displayed on London Bridge. London Bridge employed a Keeper of the Heads to oversee the displaying of these heads. The nobility, because of their high status, were privileged and allowed to be executed by beheading with an axe or sword. Many of these noble and even some royal executions by beheading took place on Tower of Green just outside the Tower of London. Although these beheadings receive much attention, they only constituted a small portion of executions.

Conclusion

Prison and punishment have been central features of life in England for a long time. When examined through a history from below perspective favored by E. P. Thompson, it becomes clear that poor people and women were the major groups to suffer under the prison system. They were not represented simply because of class issues. Power was concentrated within the small elite class. Members of this class often operated prisons for their own gain or more frequently decided on ways to punish various crimes. The penal system reflected a gap between the common and poor people and the upper class, and a further disparity between women and men. For the masses, prison was a reminder of their lack of power and of their daily struggle to live in a society with rules dictated by the wealthy. Public executions especially involved the masses in the punishment system, as these events were often treated as special entertainment. Prison and the penal system were both an imposing fright as well as an entertaining sport for the common people of England.

Sources Used:
Brandon, David and Alan Brooke. London: The Executioner’s City. Stroud: Sutton

Publishing Ltd., 2006.
Burford, E. J. “A short history of the Clink Prison”
Clink Prison Museum
Coyle, Andrew. Understanding Prisons: Key issues in policy and practice. New York:

Open University Press, 2005
Turner, Graeme. British Cultural Studies: An Introduction. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Tate Modern and London Eye

Modernism emerged after World War II and involved looking at life in a very different way than before. World War II made many people rethink their fundamental assumptions about life. They wondered what the point of life was when people could kill one another on such a massive scale as they did during the war. Previous philosophies celebrating life and human rationality seemed outdated and something new was needed. In addition to the war, scientific discoveries also made people question their previous beliefs. For example, Darwin’s theory of evolution cast previous stories of creation into doubt. These new experiences, discoveries, and ideas made people feel that their basic beliefs were now inadequate. The modernist movement arose and was essentially a search for something meaningful in life which had been lost.

In addition to science, art was also affected by modernism. In fact, John Nash’s piece entitled Landscape from a Dream draws together a modernist point of view and Freud’s new scientific beliefs about the unconscious. The painting portrays a beach scene that interestingly contains a hawk and mirrors. The mirrors give the painting a dreamlike quality influenced by Freud’s theories of the unconscious. Nash reveals that we do have a deep unconscious area of our mind. The hawk ties in aspects of the real world with our unconscious, as the hawk is looking into the mirror in the painting. The painting suggests an attempt to reconcile reality with the unconscious, or a search for some deeper meaning, clearly a modernist quest.

The ride on the London Eye made me see the city of London itself as a post-modern text with regard to all of the architecture I saw from the air. Pastiche is a critical component of post-modernism that involves bringing together different traditions into one particular structure. On the London Eye, London itself became that one structure. It displayed architecture from many centuries and styles. Big Ben and Parliament stuck out as gothic, imposing buildings. St. Paul’s Cathedral and Westminster Abbey were both visible and represented a specific sort of religious architecture with towers in the case of Westminster Abbey and a dome structure for St. Paul’s Cathedral. Other buildings exemplified architecture from the Victorian period and many other buildings appeared more modern. The Gherkin especially stood out as the most modern-looking building with the oddest shape. Yet all of these architectural variations are drawn together in the city of London. This architectural combination makes London itself an example of post-modernism.

Cultural Identity in Kureishi

In The Buddha of Suburbia, both Charlie and Karim are exposed to more than one culture. However, they react differently to this cultural blend. Karim has been surrounded by Indian culture because his father is from India. His family lives around London, so Karim has grown up amidst English culture. In addition, he takes an extended trip to America and lives in New York City for a while thus adding American culture to Karim’s life. Charlie, on the other hand, is English and born to a family from England. He gains fame, settles in America, and handles his exposure to a new culture differently than Karim does. The two characters are very different from one another but both make interesting adaptations to multiple cultures.

Karim seems troubled by his cultural make up as a young person. He recalls being picked on at school and wanting to fit in. Karim seems to feel mostly English which makes sense, as he has been raised in and around London for his whole life. However, he is exposed to Indian ways through his father and especially through Anwar and his family. Karim is content to be living in England and becomes very excited at the prospect of living in London. He is not sure what he wants from life, but feels that the city offers him the best possibility of finding out. As he grows up, Karim gets involved in acting. He gets to live and work in the city of London and meets many people. In one of his most interesting experiences on stage, Karim portrays a version of his Indian friend Changez for an English audience. Karim is constantly aware of his dual identity as an Englishman from an Indian family. To further complicate things, Karim takes a trip to America to perform a play and stays for a while with his soon to be stepbrother Charlie. Though Karim enjoys his time with Charlie up until the end of his stay, it is clear at this point that he considers London and its culture to be what really defines him. He is eager to return to London and happy to be back after his return.

Charlie differs from Karim in many ways. He fits in with any group he wants to get involved with and ends up as a famous musician. Karim always admires Charlie and seeks his acceptance, perhaps because Charlie gets along with others so easily while Karim struggles due to his multicultural background. Charlie spends his entire childhood living in England and moves to America once he has already become famous as an adult. Karim notices how the Americans really seem to admire Charlie and his music, and Charlie clearly has no problem attracting women. While Karim tried to de-emphasize his Indian identity and fully assimilate in England, Charlie has emphasized his English accent to make himself more interesting and notable in America. Karim sees that the people like Charlie’s Englishness and that Charlie has no trouble fitting into American society despite his English background. While Karim struggles to find his place in the world, Charlie is able to become a part of any group he chooses. Karim downplays his background when Charlie accents his. In very different ways, these two characters show how exposure to different cultures adds various layers to a person’s identity.

Decoration in the Tower of London and St. Paul's Cathedral

Both the Tower of London and St. Paul’s Cathedral are key sites and visitor attractions in London. However, the two places have some stark differences. The Tower of London was used as a prison, place of torture, and execution site. It was a key defensive fortress with a mini-community inside its walls containing everything from food to a chapel. St. Paul’s Cathedral, on the other hand, has been an important historical place of worship. Some interesting comparisons and contrasts can be made when examining the décor of the two places.

The Tower of London has a longer history than St. Paul’s Cathedral. This longer history is evident in the buildings within the Tower. White Tower especially shows its age as the bricks have obviously been laid centuries ago. Various places within the Tower of London are decorated differently. White Tower is fairly plain, but currently houses the “Henry VIII Dressed to Kill” exhibition. The narrow staircases and old walls create the feeling of standing in an important historical location. Beauchamp Tower contains my favorite decorations- etchings in the walls of prisoners made throughout the centuries. Some prisoners carved full coats of arms and other intricate designs, suggesting a lengthy imprisonment. Others simply carved a name or some initials to leave their mark. St. Paul’s Cathedral, unlike the Tower of London, contains no sign of prisoners. Like the White Chapel, however, climbing up the stairs to the dome and standing in the crypt make visitors aware that they are currently in a very important place. Standing on the balconies of the dome gives visitors an incredible view of the extravagant artwork in the dome. While in the crypt, people stop to look at the various memorials and tombs and clearly have a sense of the magnificence of the place.

The major similarity I noticed between the Tower of London and St. Paul’s Cathedral concerning decorations were the various memorials and tombs. The Royal Chapel of the Tower of London is the burial site for many important historical figures, such as Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell. Plaques on the wall, floor markings, and actual tombs remind visitors of the important lives of those buried within the chapel. Similarly at St. Paul’s Cathedral, the crypt contained some tombs and many plaques commemorating heroic and noteworthy individuals. The back of the church even contained a memorial for the fallen American soldiers of World War II. Both places recognize status and achievements of individuals who have died and present an atmosphere reminding visitors of their importance in the history of London.

Love and Limitations in Mrs. Dalloway

All of the main romantic relationships in Mrs. Dalloway are in some way affected by social restrictions. Clarissa Dalloway felt attracted to both Peter Walsh and her female friend Sally, but chose to marry Richard Dalloway instead. This decision was clearly based on practicality, not on love. Unlike Clarissa, Rezia did make her marriage decision based on love. She met Septimus Warren Smith after the Great War and married him because she truly loved him. Clarissa’s attitude is one of melancholy and wonder throughout the story. Sometimes it even seems that she might make different decisions if she could be young again. Rezia faces an even more tragic situation when her husband commits suicide as a result of post-traumatic stress disorder from serving in the war. Both Clarissa and Rezia face limitations in love which leave them unhappy, or even facing tragedy in Rezia’s case.

Mrs. Dalloway is shaken when her old love Peter Walsh comes to visit. This visit causes her to think about her younger years and question her success today. As young adults, Clarissa and Peter fell in love. Peter would have been content to marry Clarissa, but realized that she would choose Richard Dalloway instead. Richard was successful, and became an important political figure. Peter, on the other hand, had no big plans and had no noteworthy accomplishments. Though Clarissa loved Peter, she married Richard to secure a stable future with a successful man. Peter clearly still loves Clarissa when he comes to visit her. He cries in front of her and is constantly fiddling with his pocket knife. Clarissa, though more composed than Peter, still wonders about him and finds herself thinking about him several times throughout the day. Aside from Peter, Clarissa also felt attracted to her friend Sally when she was younger. She and Sally even kissed, and this one moment was the happiest of Clarissa’s life. Clarissa and Sally seem to have shared a wonderful friendship and obviously felt attracted to one another. However, they both knew they were expected to marry and did so later in life. Sally’s husband has no major role in the story, but Clarissa’s husband does. Richard Dalloway is an austere, composed, and successful man. He provides for his wife and family like he is expected to, but seems to be lacking any real affection for Clarissa. He never tells her that he loves her. At one point he tries to say the words, but can not. Clarissa and Richard do not seem to really know each other and their love appears shallow and only in existence for practical reasons. They were expected to marry, Richard was successful, and Clarissa would make a presentable wife. Clarissa knew that she could find stability and support with Richard and valued those things over love.

Rezia and Septimus are quite possibly the only couple in the story to have a loving relationship. Rezia truly loves her husband and enjoys his company. Septimus is too scarred from his experiences in the war to develop a deep relationship with his wife. In good moments, however, Septimus also seems to enjoy sending time with Rezia. Rezia worries for Septimus and tries to help him in any way she can think of. She takes him to see doctors in the hopes that he can get some psychological counseling and be happy again. However, their love becomes another sad story. Sir William Bradshaw is the psychiatrist that Septimus goes to visit. Bradshaw does not care very much for his patients and believes a formulaic sort of treatment can treat any individual. When Bradshaw prescribes isolation as treatment for Septimus, Rezia tries to talk to him about allowing her to go with Septimus. It seems that she realizes Bradshaw’s planned course of action will not help her husband. However, Bradshaw has an education and an ego, and refuses to take Rezia seriously. He is higher on the social hierarchy and feels above listening to the troubles of a common woman. Because of these social limitations, Bradshaw provides no help for Septimus and Septimus eventually kills himself. These social regulations ultimately destroy any chance of happiness for both Clarissa and Rezia.

Hans Holbein and the National Gallery

Germany was my focus today at the National Gallery. Specifically, I chose to examine four works by Hans Holbein the Younger in room 4. All of his work featured people- three of the paintings were portraits while one painting was much larger than the others and contained two men and a background scene. The painting with the two men was called Jean de Dinteville and Georges de Selve, or The Ambassadors. It was completed in 1533 for Dinteville, the French ambassador to the court of King Henry VIII. The two men are obviously wealthy. They are well dressed and even wearing fur. This painting gives the viewer an idea of what the upper class would have looked like. The room in which they are standing contains several objects which seem to make cultural statements. It featured a lute with a broken string, which might stand for the chaos caused by the Reformation. A silver crucifix was also in the room and served as a reminder for the importance of Christianity. Several globes and navigation tools can be seen in the painting. At the time of the painting’s production, the various European nations were in the middle of the Age of Exploration. Seafaring and exploring were clearly important to this culture. The most interesting aspect of the painting was a white shape on the floor. When viewed from the right hand side it becomes clear that this shape is actually a skull. This skull might serve as a reminder of human mortality. People of this culture must have been ever aware of death’s presence for the artist to include it in the painting.

The other three paintings of Holbein’s that I viewed were portraits. Unlike the previous painting, these paintings suggest that simplicity was also valued. The portrait called Lady with a Squirrel and a Starling showed a lady sitting outside in front of a tree. A squirrel and a starling stand by her. The animals and tree emphasize the presence and peace of nature. Next to this painting was a portrait of Christina of Denmark, the Duchess of Milan. She wears a black mourning dress that seems expensive and has fur around the neck. The background is only a blue wall with a shadow of the duchess. This portrait was for Henry VIII when he was seeking a fourth wife. The intention of this painting is clearly to reveal the looks of Christina of Denmark because the simple background contains nothing else which might cause the viewer’s attention to stray from the person. The last portrait of Holbein’s was a portrait of Erasmus, the humanist scholar. Erasmus has his hands placed on a book and other books in the background. The presence of the books suggests that this culture must have valued science and discovery. Holbein’s work reflects both simplicity and complexity. Each piece reveals some interesting aspect about the culture in which it was produced.

Westminster Abbey

What most amazed me about Westminster Abbey is the way in which it draws together so many aspects of English culture. As a church, it is of course a major religious center. Many beautiful religious objects (chalices, altars, etc.) as well as wall carvings and stained glass windows testify to the religious value of Westminster Abbey. This church also plays a major role in affairs of state. Monarchs hold their coronations at Westminster Abbey. Tombs of English rulers including Elizabeth I and Henry III can be found in the church. Aside from the royalty, many prominent English people and families are entombed in Westminster Abbey. Because Westminster Abbey is the resting place of rulers and social notables, this one place links religion with state. There is also another dimension to these cultural links. The Poet’s Corner houses the tombs of such notable artistic figures as Lord Byron and Geoffrey Chaucer. English society must place a high value on artistic talent to place the tombs of these important literary figures in the same place as monarchs. Westminster Abbey is so unique because politics and diplomacy, religion, and the arts are all represented inside a beautiful and historical building.

During our visit to Westminster Abbey, the priests opened up the shrine of St. Edward the Confessor and invited visitors to sit in the shrine and pray. I took advantage of this opportunity and gained a sense of the importance of tradition to the church. The prayer was very structured and had some traditional aspects as the visitors responded to the priest with certain words and the priest asked for the intercession of St. Edward the Confessor. Being in his shrine was a constant reminder of the monarchical tradition in England as well. As I thought about being in the shrine of St. Edward the Confessor I had to think of all the monarchs who followed him. These traditional aspects as well as the fusion of various elements of English culture made visiting Westminster Abbey a unique and exciting experience.